When man has arrived at maturity, his upper part is smaller
than the lower one, but with all other blooded animals the reverse
holds good. By the 'upper' part we mean all extending from the head
down to the parts used for excretion of residuum, and by the 'lower'
part else. With animals that have feet the hind legs are to be rated
as the lower part in our comparison of magnitudes, and with animals
devoid of feet, the tail, and the like.

With most animals

the genitals have the position above
assigned; but some animals discharge their urine backwards, as the
lynx, the lion, the camel, and the hare. Male animals differ from
one another, as has been said, in this particular, but all female
animals are retromingent: even the female elephant like other animals,
though she has the privy part below the thighs.

In the male organ itself there is a great diversity. For in some
cases the organ is composed of flesh and gristle, as in man; in such
cases, the fleshy part does not become inflated, but the gristly
part is subject to enlargement. In other cases, the organ is
composed of fibrous tissue, as with the camel and the deer; in other
cases it is bony, as with the fox, the wolf, the marten, and the
weasel; for this organ in the weasel has a bone.

The penis of the elephant

resembles that of the horse; compared
with the size of the animal it is disproportionately small; the
testicles are not visible, but are concealed inside in the vicinity of
the kidneys; and for this reason the male speedily gives over in the
act of intercourse. The genitals of the female are situated where
the udder is in sheep; when she is in heat, she draws the organ back
and exposes it externally, to facilitate the act of intercourse for
the male; and the organ opens out to a considerable extent.

horses

Of male animals the genitals of some are external, as is the case
with man, the horse, and most other creatures; some are internal, as
with the dolphin. With those that have the organ externally placed,
the organ in some cases is situated in front, as in the cases
already mentioned, and of these some have the organ detached, both
penis and testicles, as man; others have penis and testicles closely
attached to the belly, some more closely, some less; for this organ is
not detached in the wild boar nor in the horse.

the males also

have breasts, like the females, exceedingly small. The she-bear has
four breasts. Some animals have two breasts, but situated near the
thighs, and teats, likewise two in number, as the sheep; others have
four teats, as the cow. Some have breasts neither in the chest nor
at the thighs, but in the belly, as the dog and pig; and they have a
considerable number of breasts or dugs, but not all of equal size.
Thus the shepard has four dugs in the belly, the lioness two, and
others more. The she-camel, also, has two dugs and four teats, like
the cow. Of solid-hooved animals the males have no dugs, excepting
in the case of males that take after the mother, which phenomenon is
observable in horses.

Again,

with regard to the breasts and the generative organs,
animals differ widely from one another and from man. For instance, the
breasts of some animals are situated in front, either in the chest
or near to it, and there are in such cases two breasts and two
teats, as is the case with man and the elephant, as previously stated.
For the elephant has two breasts in the region of the axillae; and the
female elephant has two breasts insignificant in size and in no way
proportionate to the bulk of the entire frame, in fact, so
insignificant as to be invisible in a sideways view;

Of horned

animals the deer alone has a horn, or antler, hard
and solid throughout. The horns of other animals are hollow for a
certain distance, and solid towards the extremity. The hollow part
is derived from the skin, but the core round which this is wrapped-the
hard part-is derived from the bones; as is the case with the horns
of oxen. The deer is the only animal that sheds its horns, and it does
so annually, after reaching the age of two years, and again renews
them. All other animals retain their horns permanently, unless the
horns be damaged by accident.

animals

Some animals are, at one and the same time, furnished with a mane
and furnished also with a pair of horns bent in towards one another,
as is the bison (or aurochs), which is found in Paeonia and Maedica.
But all animals that are horned are quadrupedal, except in cases where
a creature is said metaphorically, or by a figure of speech, to have
horns; just as the Egyptians describe the serpents found in the
neighbourhood of Thebes, while in point of fact the creatures have
merely protuberances on the head sufficiently large to suggest such an
epithet.

Of the

many-fingered or many-toed, no single one has been observed to have
a huckle-bone, none of the others any more than man. The lynx,
however, has something like a hemiastragal, and the lion something
resembling the sculptor's 'labyrinth'. All the animals that have a
huckle-bone have it in the hinder legs. They have also the bone placed
straight up in the joint; the upper part, outside; the lower part,
inside; the sides called Coa turned towards one another, the sides
called Chia outside, and the keraiae or 'horns' on the top. This,
then, is the position of the hucklebone in the case of all animals
provided with the part.

Furthermore,

of animals some are horned, and some are not so.
The great majority of the horned animals are cloven-footed, as the ox,
the stag, the goat; and a solid-hooved animal with a pair of horns has
never yet been met with. But a few animals are known to be
singled-horned and single-hooved, as the Indian ass; and one, to wit
the oryx, is single horned and cloven-hooved.

Of all solid-hooved animals the Indian ass alone has an astragalus
or huckle-bone; for the pig, as was said above, is either solid-hooved
or cloven-footed, and consequently has no well-formed huckle-bone.
Of the cloven footed many are provided with a huckle-bone.

Of blooded

and viviparous quadrupeds some have the foot cloven
into many parts, as is the case with the hands and feet of man (for
some animals, by the way, are many-toed, as the lion, the dog, and the
pard); others have feet cloven in twain, and instead of nails have
hooves, as the sheep, the goat, the deer, and the hippopotamus; others
are uncloven of foot, such for instance as the solid-hooved animals,
the horse and the mule. Swine are either cloven-footed or
uncloven-footed; for there are in Illyria and in Paeonia and elsewhere
solid-hooved swine. The cloven-footed animals have two clefts
behind; in the solid-hooved this part is continuous and undivided.

The legs

of all quadrupeds are bony, sinewy, and fleshless; and
in point of fact such is the case with all animals that are
furnished with feet, with the exception of man. They are also
unfurnished with buttocks; and this last point is plain in an especial
degree in birds. It is the reverse with man; for there is scarcely any
part of the body in which man is so fleshy as in the buttock, the
thigh, and the calf; for the part of the leg called gastroenemia or is
fleshy.

The camel

has four teats like the cow,
a tail like that of an ass, and the privy parts of the male are
directed backwards. It has one knee in each leg, and the flexures of
the limb are not manifold, as some say, although they appear to be
so from the constricted shape of the region of the belly. It has a
huckle-bone like that of kine, but meagre and small in proportion to
its bulk. It is cloven-footed, and has not got teeth in both jaws; and
it is cloven footed in the following way: at the back there is a
slight cleft extending as far up as the second joint of the toes;
and in front there are small hooves on the tip of the first joint of
the toes; and a sort of web passes across the cleft, as in geese.
The foot is fleshy underneath, like that of the bear; so that, when
the animal goes to war, they protect its feet, when they get sore,
with sandals.

The elephant,

by the way, is the least hairy of all quadrupeds.
With animals, as a general rule, the tail corresponds with the body as
regards thickness or thinness of hair-coating; that is, with animals
that have long tails, for some creatures have tails of altogether
insignificant size.
Camels have an exceptional organ wherein they differ from all
other animals, and that is the so-called 'hump' on their back. The
Bactrian camel differs from the Arabian; for the former has two
humps and the latter only one, though it has, by the way, a kind of
a hump below like the one above, on which, when it kneels, the
weight of the whole body rests.

The so-called hippelaphus also has a mane on its withers, and the
animal called pardion, in either case a thin mane extending from the
head to the withers; the hippelaphus has, exceptionally, a beard by
the larynx. Both these animals have horns and are cloven-footed; the
female, however, of the hippelaphus has no horns. This latter animal
resembles the stag in size; it is found in the territory of the
Arachotae, where the wild cattle also are found. Wild cattle differ
from their domesticated congeners just as the wild boar differs from
the domesticated one. That is to say they are black, strong looking,
with a hook-nosed muzzle, and with horns lying more over the back. The
horns of the hippelaphus resemble those of the gazelle.

Of hair-coated

quadrupeds some are hairy all over the body, as
the pig, the bear, and the dog; others are especially hairy on the
neck and all round about it, as is the case with animals that have a
shaggy mane, such as the lion; others again are especially hairy on
the upper surface of the neck from the head as far as the withers,
namely, such as have a crested mane, as in the case with the horse,
the mule, and, among the undomesticated horned animals, the bison.

All viviparous

quadrupeds are hair-coated, whereas man has only a
few short hairs excepting on the head, but, so far as the head is
concerned, he is hairier than any other animal. Further, of
hair-coated animals, the back is hairier than the belly, which
latter is either comparatively void of hair or smooth and void of hair
altogether. With man the reverse is the case.

Man also has upper and lower eyelashes, and hair under the
armpits and on the pubes. No other animal has hair in either of
these localities, or has an under eyelash; though in the case of
some animals a few straggling hairs grow under the eyelid.