The liver

of a man is round-shaped, and
resembles the same organ in the ox. And, by the way, the absence above
referred to of a gall-bladder is at times met with in the practice
of augury. For instance, in a certain district of the Chalcidic
settlement in Euboea the sheep are devoid of gall-bladders; and in
Naxos nearly all the quadrupeds have one so large that foreigners when
they offer sacrifice with such victims are bewildered with fright,
under the impression that the phenomenon is not due to natural causes,
but bodes some mischief to the individual offerers of the sacrifice.

Under the diaphragm

on the right-hand side lies the 'liver',
and on the left-hand side the 'spleen', alike in all animals that
are provided with these organs in an ordinary and not preternatural
way; for, be it observed, in some quadrupeds these organs have been
found in a transposed position. These organs are connected with the
stomach by the caul.

To outward view the spleen of man is narrow and long,
resembling the self-same organ in the pig. The liver in the great
majority of animals is not provided with a 'gall-bladder'; but the
latter is present in some.

Of the other

internal organs the heart alone contains blood.
And the lung has blood not in itself but in its veins, but the heart
has blood in itself; for in each of its three cavities it has blood,
but the thinnest blood is what it has in its central cavity.

Under the lung comes the thoracic diaphragm or midriff,
attached to the ribs, the hypochondria and the backbone, with a thin
membrane in the middle of it. It has veins running through it; and the
diaphragm in the case of man is thicker in proportion to the size of
his frame than in other animals.

and there is no common passage,

but the passages through their
having a common wall receive the breath and pass it on to the heart;
and one of the passages conveys it to the right cavity, and the
other to the left.

With regard to the great vein and the aorta we shall, by and
by, treat of them together in a discussion devoted to them and to them
alone. In all animals that are furnished with a lung, and that are
both internally and externally viviparous, the lung is of all organs
the most richly supplied with blood; for the lung is throughout spongy
in texture, and along by every single pore in it go branches from
the great vein. Those who imagine it to be empty are altogether
mistaken; and they are led into their error by their observation of
lungs removed from animals under dissection, out of which organs the
blood had all escaped immediately after death.

All these cavities,

even the two small ones, are connected by
passages with the lung, and this fact is rendered quite plain in one
of the cavities. And below, at the point of attachment, in the largest
cavity there is a connexion with the great vein (near which the
mesentery lies); and in the middle one there is a connexion with the
aorta.

Canals lead from the heart into the lung, and branch off just
as the windpipe does, running all over the lung parallel with the
passages from the windpipe. The canals from the heart are uppermost;

The apex is to

a great extent fleshy and close in texture, and in the cavities of the
heart are sinews. As a rule the heart is situated in the middle of the
chest in animals that have a chest, and in man it is situated a little
to the left-hand side, leaning a little way from the division of the
breasts towards the left breast in the upper part of the chest.
The heart is not large, and in its general shape it is not
elongated; in fact, it is somewhat round in form: only, be it
remembered, it is sharp-pointed at the bottom. It has three
cavities, as has been said: the right-hand one the largest of the
three, the left-hand one the least, and the middle one intermediate in
size.

17

The heart has three cavities, and is situated above the lung at
the division of the windpipe, and is provided with a fatty and thick
membrane where it fastens on to the great vein and the aorta. It
lies with its tapering portion upon the aorta, and this portion is
similarly situated in relation to the chest in all animals that have a
chest. In all animals alike, in those that have a chest and in those
that have none, the apex of the heart points forwards, although this
fact might possibly escape notice by a change of position under
dissection. The rounded end of the heart is at the top.

The mesentery is over the bowels; this also is membranous and
broad, and turns to fat. It is attached to the great vein and the
aorta, and there run through it a number of veins closely packed
together, extending towards the region of the bowels, beginning
above and ending below.

So much for the properties of the oesophagus, the windpipe, and
the stomach.

It is composed

of flesh-like substance, and is elastic
both lengthways and breadthways.

The stomach of man resembles that of a dog; for it is not much
bigger than the bowel, but is somewhat like a bowel of more than usual
width; then comes the bowel, single, convoluted, moderately wide.
The lower part of the gut is like that of a pig; for it is broad,
and the part from it to the buttocks is thick and short. The caul,
or great omentum, is attached to the middle of the stomach, and
consists of a fatty membrane, as is the case with all other animals
whose stomachs are single and which have teeth in both jaws.

When the windpipe is charged with air,

the entrance
of the air into the heart, though imperceptible in some animals, is
perceptible enough in the larger ones. Such are the properties of
the windpipe, and it takes in and throws out air only, and takes in
nothing else either dry or liquid, or else it causes you pain until
you shall have coughed up whatever may have gone down.

The oesophagus communicates at the top with the mouth, close to
the windpipe, and is attached to the backbone and the windpipe by
membranous ligaments, and at last finds its way through the midriff
into the belly.

In the case of the ovipara, such as birds and oviparous
quadrupeds, the two parts of the organ are separated to a distance
from one another, so that the creatures appear to be furnished with
a pair of lungs; and from the windpipe, itself single, there branch
off two separate parts extending to each of the two divisions of the
lung. It is attached also to the great vein and to what is
designated the 'aorta'. When the windpipe is charged with air, the air
passes on to the hollow parts of the lung. These parts have divisions,
composed of gristle, which meet at an acute angle; from the
divisions run passages through the entire lung, giving off smaller and
smaller ramifications. The heart also is attached to the windpipe,
by connexions of fat, gristle, and sinew; and at the point of juncture
there is a hollow.

In betwixt the two openings

comes the so-called epiglottis, an organ capable of being drawn over
and covering the orifice of the windpipe communicating with the mouth;
the end of the tongue is attached to the epiglottis. In the other
direction the windpipe extends to the interval between the lungs,
and hereupon bifurcates into each of the two divisions of the lung;
for the lung in all animals possessed of the organ has a tendency to
be double. In viviparous animals, however, the duplication is not so
plainly discernible as in other species, and the duplication is
least discernible in man. And in man the organ is not split into
many parts, as is the case with some vivipara, neither is it smooth,
but its surface is uneven.

Inside the neck

is what is termed the oesophagus (whose other
name is derived oesophagus from its length and narrowness), and the
windpipe. The windpipe is situated in front of the oesophagus in all
animals that have a windpipe, and all animals have one that are
furnished with lungs. The windpipe is made up of gristle, is sparingly
supplied with blood, and is streaked all round with numerous minute
veins; it is situated, in its upper part, near the mouth, below the
aperture formed by the nostrils into the mouth-an aperture through
which, when men, in drinking, inhale any of the liquid, this liquid
finds its way out through the nostrils.

The back

of the head is with all animals empty and hollow,
whatever be its size in the different animals. For some creatures have
big heads while the face below is small in proportion, as is the
case with round-faced animals; some have little heads and long jaws,
as is the case, without exception, among animals of the
mane-and-tail species.

The brain in all animals is bloodless, devoid of veins, and
naturally cold to the touch; in the great majority of animals it has a
small hollow in its centre. The brain-caul around it is reticulated
with veins; and this brain-caul is that skin-like membrane which
closely surrounds the brain. Above the brain is the thinnest and
weakest bone of the head, which is termed or 'sinciput'.

From the eye there go three ducts to the brain: the largest and
the medium-sized to the cerebellum, the least to the brain itself; and
the least is the one situated nearest to the nostril. The two
largest ones, then, run side by side and do not meet; the medium-sized
ones meet-and this is particularly visible in fishes,-for they lie
nearer than the large ones to the brain; the smallest pair are the
most widely separate from one another, and do not meet.

In the first

place then, the brain lies in the front part of the
head. And this holds alike with all animals possessed of a brain;
and all blooded animals are possessed thereof, and, by the way,
molluscs as well. But, taking size for size of animal, the largest
brain, and the moistest, is that of man. Two membranes enclose it: the
stronger one near the bone of the skull; the inner one, round the
brain itself, is finer. The brain in all cases is bilateral. Behind
this, right at the back, comes what is termed the 'cerebellum',
differing in form from the brain as we may both feel and see.

The parts,

then, that are externally visible are arranged in the way above stated, and as a rule have their special designations, and from use and wont are known familiarly to all; but this is not the case with the inner parts. For the fact is that the inner parts of man are to a very great extent unknown, and the consequence is that we must have recourse to an examination of the inner parts of other animals whose nature in any way resembles that of man.

As for the senses and for the organs of sensation, the eyes,
the nostrils, and the tongue, all alike are situated frontwards; the
sense of hearing, and the organ of hearing, the ear, is situated
sideways, on the same horizontal plane with the eyes. The eyes in
man are, in proportion to his size, nearer to one another than in
any other animal.

Of the senses man has the sense of touch more refined than any
animal, and so also, but in less degree, the sense of taste; in the
development of the other senses he is surpassed by a great number of
animals.

Next after

the head comes the neck, and then the chest and the
back: the one in front and the other behind. Next after these come the
belly, the loins, the sexual parts, and the haunches; then the thigh
and shin; and, lastly, the feet.

The legs bend frontwards, in the direction of actual progression,
and frontwards also lies that part of the foot which is the most
effective of motion, and the flexure of that part; but the heel lies
at the back, and the anklebones lie laterally, earwise. The arms are
situated to right and left, and bend inwards: so that the
convexities formed by bent arms and legs are practically face to
face with one another in the case of man.

In man,

above all other animals, the terms 'upper' and 'lower'
are used in harmony with their natural positions; for in him, upper
and lower have the same meaning as when they are applied to the
universe as a whole. In like manner the terms, 'in front', 'behind',
'right' and 'left', are used in accordance with their natural sense.
But in regard to other animals, in some cases these distinctions do
not exist, and in others they do so, but in a vague way. For instance,
the head with all animals is up and above in respect to their
bodies; but man alone, as has been said, has, in maturity, this part
uppermost in respect to the material universe.

These, then, are the parts common to the male and the female sex.
The relative position of the parts as to up and down, or to front
and back, or to right and left, all this as regards externals might
safely be left to mere ordinary perception. But for all that, we
must treat of them for the same reason as the one previously brought
forward; that is to say, we must refer to them in order that a due and
regular sequence may be observed in our exposition, and in order
that by the enumeration of these obvious facts due attention may be
subsequently given to those parts in men and other animals that are
diverse in any way from one another.

the upper part or back of the foot is sinewy and has no
particular appellation; of the toe, one portion is the 'nail' and
another the 'joint', and the nail is in all cases at the extremity;
and toes are without exception single jointed. Men that have the
inside or sole of the foot clumsy and not arched, that is, that walk
resting on the entire under-surface of their feet, are prone to
roguery. The joint common to thigh and shin is the 'knee'.

There is another

duplicate limb, the 'leg'. Of this limb the
double-knobbed part is termed the 'thigh-bone', the sliding part of
the 'kneecap', the double-boned part the 'leg'; the front part of this
latter is termed the 'shin', and the part behind it the 'calf',
wherein the flesh is sinewy and venous, in some cases drawn upwards
towards the hollow behind the knee, as in the case of people with
large hips, and in other cases drawn downwards. The lower extremity of
the shin is the 'ankle', duplicate in either leg. The part of the limb
that contains a multiplicity of bones is the 'foot'. The hinder part
of the foot is the 'heel'; at the front of it the divided part
consists of 'toes', five in number; the fleshy part underneath is
the 'ball';